Opinion as fact - this is where the writer will state that their opinion is fact, when it is actually an opinion. For example, 'It is a fact that I cannot stand winter!
By stating that opinion is fact, it can be quite confusing for a reader. The reader may feel automatically that it is a fact and could be convinced by it. Repetition - this is where a single word or phrase is repeated over and over again in order to emphasise it. Repetition works in a similar way to a list of three. By continually repeating the same idea or phrase, it draws attention to that particular phrase and emphasises its importance.
For that reason, it is important to analyse the actual word or point being made and why it needs to be emphasised. As there is nobody to answer the question, they are usually designed to talk to the reader.
It allows the reader a moment to pause and think about the question. Shock tactics - this is where the writer will try to use shocking imagery or statements in order surprise or horrify the reader.
This is effective because it will shock the reader into action. If the reader is surprised or horrified by something, they will remember it and it is likely to cause an emotional response that will make them react.
Statistics and facts - statistics are numbers or facts that are used to provide convincing information. A writer will use these as a tool to convince the reader. The reader will feel that they cannot argue with facts and that statistics will prove what the writer is saying. Do they come from a reputable or well-known source? Also take note of the date.
How old is the information? If not, attempt to find statistics from a more trustworthy source. Population Reference Bureau. Pew Research Center. Selecting the appropriate facts or statistics will help your argument immensely. Not only will they actually support your point, but they will not undermine the legitimacy of your position.
Think about how your parents will react when they learn from the professor that the average median grade was 95! Sometimes, you may misrepresent your evidence by accident and misunderstanding. Other times, however, misrepresentation may be slightly less innocent. This can be seen most readily in visual aids. Either the range can be shortened to cut out data points which do not fit, e. Furthermore, do not fiddle with the proportions, either vertically or horizontally.
Charts A, B, and C all use the same data points, but the stories they seem to be telling are quite different. Chart A shows a mild increase, followed by a slow decline. Chart B, on the other hand, reveals a steep jump, with a sharp drop-off immediately following. Conversely, Chart C seems to demonstrate that there was virtually no change over time. These variations are a product of changing the scale of the chart.
One way to alleviate this problem is to supplement the chart by using the actual numbers in your text, in the spirit of full disclosure. Another point of concern can be seen in Charts D and E. Both use the same data as charts A, B, and C for the years , but additional time points, using two hypothetical sets of data, have been added back to Given the different trends leading up to , consider how the significance of recent events can change.
In Chart D, the downward trend from to is going against a long-term upward trend, whereas in Chart E, it is merely the continuation of a larger downward trend after a brief upward turn.
One of the difficulties with visual aids is that there is no hard and fast rule about how much to include and what to exclude. Judgment is always involved. In general, be sure to present your visual aids so that your readers can draw their own conclusions from the facts and verify your assertions.
Because percentages are always derived from a specific base, they are meaningless until associated with a base. Suppose we have two cities, Springfield and Shelbyville. Which city is having a bigger murder problem? It has to be Springfield. Hold on a second, because this is actually much less clear than it looks. In order to really know which city has a worse problem, we have to look at the actual numbers. If I told you that Springfield had 4 murders last year and 7 this year, and Shelbyville had 30 murders last year and 33 murders this year, would you change your answer?
Maybe, since 33 murders are significantly more than 7. One would certainly feel safer in Springfield, right? They make unsupported statements that the reader is just supposed to swallow whole. If you want to persuade me that your assessment is valid, your prediction is accurate, or your advice is effective, here are five ways to do that. Nothing persuades like a number. How to use it. Cite the data and the source.
To persuade you concentrate on writing better emails , I could tell you that, in my survey of business writers, they spend an average of 9. How to poke holes in it. All statistics have weaknesses. Is it out of date? Is the sample too small or unrepresentative? How did they ask the question? And above all, what is the source? I trust unemployment estimates from the U. Department of Labor over wild-ass guesses from Donald Trump, for example.
So cite an example — who else did this and why did it work? Make the claim, then show how it works in practice.
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